Fiat. A troubled European Giant. Answer 4 questions+Introduction and Coursework

Fiat. A troubled European Giant. Answer 4 questions+Introduction and Summary - Coursework Example The company fell because of embezzlement of funds by the Agnelli family, which owns about 34% of the normal shares through the holding companies Ifi and Ifil. The Agnelli Family control maintenance has been a priority hence making it hard for Fiat to enter into treacheries and joint businesses that are common among its rivals. Fiat has been investing slowly in the quality improvements and other innovations placing itself at a weak position of quality guarantees when competition was opened in the market. The company had many debts that amounted to 6bn, with its falling selling that fetched it losses. Still in this state about 6000 job were lost and production was stopped in 18 plants. The company offset some ventures such as insurance and aero- engines operations. Even though Mr. Berlusconi had promised to improve economy, cut taxes, and reforms in the structure, he faced troubles to accomplish them as he faced public rejection to the unpalatable changes. Intense competition and a declining market share is the main problem, which causes the following; as domestic brands tend to dominate home market, Fiat’s proportion of sales in Italy is high. Still, this dominance is on decline, as in 2004 domestic brands had fallen approximately for 30% of sales. Fiat’s business face generational turnover and increased overseas competition. Initially, Fiat was closely allied with the government which was instrumental to its post-war economic recovery and which enabled Fiat to shelter from international competition. In addition, the company concentrates on the compact market in European countries whereby with a small company they can continue to pay more attention to the quality of their products. Fiat’s vehicles have been enhanced greatly which made the company get over $ 70 million Euros as the demand of their cars increased. The company needs to turn around the business so that it would be attractive enough for General Motors to its shares. In

Computed Tomography and Nasal Endoscopy in Chronic Headache

Computed Tomography and Nasal Endoscopy in Chronic Headache STUDY OF CORRELATION BETWEEN COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY AND NASAL ENDOSCOPY IN CHRONIC HEADACHE ABSTRACT AIM: To evaluate the correlation between radiological and endoscopic findings in cases of chronic headache Methodology: The study includes 300 patients who presented to the OPD of a tertiary level centre with headache. RESULTS: Endoscopic and CT abnormalities were detected in 265/300 (88.3%) patients. Most common abnormality was a septal spur impinging on lateral nasal wall seen in 94 cases (35.4%), followed by inferior turbinate hypertrophy, concha bullosa, accessory maxillary sinus ostium, paradoxical curved middle turbinate, polyposis and frontal osteoma. A majority of patients had associated changes in the sinuses as well. CONCLUSION: The study highlights the correlation between radiological and endoscopic findings of sinonasal disease as a cause of headache. Abnormalities and variations in endonasal anatomy, functional or anatomical or a combination of these variations caused narrowing of OMU, which predisposed patients to sinonasal disease and headache Key Words: Endoscopy, Headache Introduction Headache is common with high lifetime prevalence in general population. Headache disorders are generally classified as either primary (migraine, tension type and cluster headache) or secondary (infectious, vascular, drug induced). [1] Chronic headache, defined as headache on 15 or more days per month, affects 3% of people worldwide. [2] Sinusitis may constitute one of the most commonly confusing clinical presentation of migraine [3], probably because cranial autonomic symptoms are common in migraine [4] based on activation of the trigeminal-autonomic reflex [5]. Headaches located in the frontal, supraorbital, or infraorbital region are sinus headaches [6]. These headaches are usually recurrent, non-seasonal, and unassociated with fever, localized tenderness, or erythema. [7] Fifty years ago, the extracorporeal cold light and its transmission by glass fibers, along with the hopkins rod lens system, were introduced. The development and application of these technologies to upper airways allowed studying, understanding, and improving knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, and diseases of the nasal cavity and sinuses, in particular, some fundamental concepts of modern rhinology are based on endoscopic nasal findings and messerklinger’s investigations of the pathophysiology of sinus mucosa. These studies radically changed traditional understanding of sinus inflammation and revolutionized its treatment using endoscopic conservative surgical management [messerklinger, 1966, 1967, and 1978]. Whether or not nasal obstruction can lead to chronic headache is controversial [8]. Paradoxically, sinus disease also tends to be underdiagnosed, as sphenoid sinus infection frequently is missed [9] Aim The study was conducted in patients with chronic headache to study the anatomical and pathological abnormalities in nose and paransasal sinuses, to correlate radiological with endoscopic findings and finally to assess type of cases requiring nasal surgery in patients who are not responding to medical treatment. Methodology The study includes 300 patients who presented to the OPD of a tertiary level centre during the period July 2010 to July 2014, who had symptoms and signs of chronic headache. Inclusion criteria: Patients presenting with sinugenic headache. The data is collected on the basis of detailed history, systemic examination, ENT examination and investigations. Diagnostic criteria: Subsequently all the selected candidates were worked up on the history, general examination, and ENT examination carried out. CT PNS was done in all the patients. Diagnostic Nasal endoscopy under local anesthesia was done to record the condition of nasal mucosa, septum, turbinates and to assess the condition of the nasopharynx and eustachian tube opening, to look for the presence of mucopus or polyp in the middle meatus/sphenoethmoidal recess/nasopharynx. Also, any co-existing anatomical variations of the lateral wall of the nose were noted. Once the diagnosis and extent of the disease was established, the patients were taken up for FESS. Results: In present study majority of patients were female. 190 were females and 110 were males in a total of 300 patients. Table -1 TABLE -2: ABNORMALITIES ON ENDOSCOPIC AND CT EXAMINATION Endoscopic abnormalities were found in 265/300 patients. Majority of patients had deviated nasal septum with spur impringing on lateral nasal wall, as a most common endoscopic abnormality. Other conditions identified were abnormal middle turbinate, enlarged ethmoid bulla, polyps, inferior turbinate hypertrophy, prominent aggernasi cells and frontal osteoma. Sinus involvement of varying severity was seen in 70% of patients. TABLE-3: COMPARISON OF RADIOLOGICAL ENDOSCOPIC ABNORMALITIES Treatment In present study of 300 patients, all patients underwent medical treatment. The medical treatment included nasal decongestants, steroid sprays, antibiotic therapy and steam inhalation. The minimum duration of medical treatment was 6 months. The end point of medical treatment was a score of more than 5 on pain scale. 265 patients were taken up for surgery. The most common surgical procedure done was septoplasty with turbinoplasty under LA followed by FESS in cases with sinus involvement. The pain score was evaluated 3 months following surgery. We found that majority of patients who had pain score more than 5 at end of 6months of medical treatment were treated with surgery and had a pain score less than 5 at 3 months. Discussion Standard radiography is inadequate for the clinical evaluation of sinusitis because it does not evaluate the anterior ethmoid air cells, the upper two thirds of the nasal cavity, or the infundibular, middle meatus, or frontal recess air passages. [11] CT is the optimal radiographic study to assess the paranasal sinuses for evidence of disease. The mucosa of the normal, non infected sinus approximates the bone so closely that it cannot be visualized on ct. Therefore, any soft tissue seen within a sinus is abnormal [12]. CT may demonstrate mucosal thickening, sclerosis, clouding, or air-fluid levels. Imaging must be performed in the coronal plane to adequately demonstrate the ethmoid complex. It can reveal the extent of mucosal disease in the ostio meatal complex Incidental anatomic abnormalities within the paranasal sinuses are common. Incidental anatomic abnormalities on CT scans occur in 27% to 45% of asymptomatic individuals [13]. Patients undergoing endoscopic sinus surgery for chronic rhinosinusitis were evaluated with CT and staged according to the Lund system. (Each paranasal sinus: anterior ethmoid, posterior ethmoid, maxillary, frontal, and sphenoid sinus for each side was given a score of 0 for no opacification, 1 for partial opacification, or 2 for total opacification) The ostiomeatal complex was assigned a score of 0 for Patent or 2 for obstructed. The Lund score ranged from 0 to 24. Wolff [14] showed that the sinuses themselves are relatively insensitive to pain. The pain associated with sinusitis comes from engorged and inflamed nasal structures: nasofrontal ducts, turbinates, ostia, and superior nasal spaces. Headache associated with paranasal sinus disease usually has a deeper, dull, aching quality combined with a heaviness and fullness. It seldom is associated with nausea and vomiting A severe, intractable, new-onset headache that interferes with sleep and is not relieved by simple analgesics should alert one to the diagnosis of sphenoid sinusitis. The headache increases in severity and has no specific location. Pain or paraesthesias in the facial distribution of the fifth nerve and photophobia or eye tearing are suggestive of sphenoid sinusitis. [15-19] Mcauliffe et al [20] studied the sensitivity of the nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses using touch, pressure, and faradic stimulation. The nasal turbinates and sinus ostia were much more sensitive than the mucosal lining of the septum and the paranasal sinuses. Most of the pain elicited was referred pain. It was of increased intensity, longer duration, and referred to larger areas in subjects who had swelling and engorgement of the nasal turbinates and the sinus ostia. Sschà ¸nsted-madsen et al [21] followed up 444 patients who had nasal obstruction, 157 of whom had headache. Treatment consisted of septo-plastic surgery, reconstruction of the nasal pyramids, or submucosal conchotomy. The headache usually was localized to the forehead, glabella, or above and around the eyes. Headache can be arising from the paranasal sinuses, which may be missed even after careful history. Nasal endoscopy plays an important role in recognizing pathological changes following radiographic investigations. The IHS has established new criteria for acute sinus headache [22} Rhinosinusitis headache Good nasal endoscopic examination, with CT PNS wherever necessary, has proved best modality for comprehensive diagnosis of chronic inflammatory disease of PNS. Following these definitive reliable techniques with adequate diagnostic information, to determine which treatment modality is required or necessary and also can avoid radical surgery in majority of instances. Jakobsen and Svendstrup (2000) (23) conducted a prospective study on 237 consecutive patients suffering from chronic sinusitis and or nasal polyposis. Nasal obstruction was the most frequent symptom (61%) followed by purulent nasal discharge, anosmia, frontal pain, headache and maxillary pain. Duration of symptoms averaged 9.3years. At the end of 1 year follow up 45% were totally satisfied with the results and were symptom free and 44% were definitely feeling better. Damm et al (2002) (24) conducted a study on patients with CRS to assess impact of FESS on the symptoms profile. Leading symptoms of CRS were nasal obstruction (92%) and postnasal drip (87%). Furthermore, patients reported dry upper respiratory tract syndrome in 68%, hyposmia in 66%, and headache in 64% and asthmatic complaints in 34%. After a mean postoperative follow up of 31.7 months, an improvement in quality of life was achieved in 85%, no change in 12% deterioration in 3% mainly responsible for this improvement was the postoperative decrease of nasal obstruction (84%), headache (82%) and postnasal drip (74%) (All symptoms; p Conclusion In present study 265 patients were found to have abnormal pathological findings, and 5 patients had typical structure of lateral nasal wall. Among anatomic variants, deviated nasal septum with mucopurulent discharge followed by abnormal uncinate process, abnormal middle turbinate resulted in significant narrowing of OMC. Most of these patients were not relieved with medical treatment had anatomical variations and such patients were posted for surgical treatment. To conclude, combination of thorough nasal endoscopic examination and CT of PNS for diagnosis of functional status of nasal and PNS as well as surgical treatment of functional and anatomical variations including postoperative follow up minimal conservative resection of anatomical abnormalities or small pathological lesions in intricate lateral wall of nose may only be required to alleviate nagging chronic intractable headache. So, nasal endoscopy is useful for the diagnosis as well as for surgical intervention and management of sinugenic headache. Bibiography 1 Martin V, Elkind A. Diagnosis And Classification Of Primary Headache Disorders.In Standards Of Care For Headache Diagnosis And Treatment. Chicago (Il): National Headache Foundation: 2004 P. 4-18 2 Stovner L, Hagen K, Jensen R, Katsarava Z, Lipton R, Scher A, Etal. The Global Burden Of Headache: A Documentation Of Headache Prevelance And Disability World Wide. Cephalgia 2007; 27(3): 193-210 In 3. Bcps; Powers C, Schreiber Cp, Hutchinson S, Webster Cj, Ames M,Richardson Ms, Pharm D (2004) Prevalence Of Migraine In Patients With Ahistory Of Self-Reported Or Physician-Diagnosed Sinus Headache. Arch Intern Med 164:1769–1772 4. Peter Jg (2009) Lacrimation, Conjunctival Injection, Nasal Symptoms Cluster Headache, Migraine And Cranial Autonomic Symptoms In Primary Headache Disorders- Whats New? J Neurol Neursurg Psychiatry 80:1057–58 5. May A, Goadsby Pj (1999) The Trigeminovascular System In Humans: Pathophysiological Implications For Primary Headache Syndromes Of The Neural Influences On The Cerebral Circulation. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 19:115–127 6. Dadgarnia Mh, Atighechi S, Baradaranfar Mh (2010) The Response To Sodium Valproate Of Patients With Sinus Headaches With Normal Endoscopicand Ct Findings. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 267:375–379 7. Levine Hl, Setzen M, Cady Rk, Et Al. (2006) An Otolaryngology, Neurology,Allergy And Primary Care Consensus On Diagnosis And Treatment Of Sinus Headache.A Literature Review. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 134:516–52.3 [8] Schà ¸nsted-Madsen U, Stoksted P, Christensen Ph, Koch-Henriksen N. Chronic Headache Related To Nasal Obstruction. J Laryngol Otol 1986;100:165–70. [9] Lew D, Southwick Fs, Montgomery Ww, Weber Al, Baker As. Sphenoid Sinusitis:A Review Of 30 Cases. N Engl J Med 1983;19:1149–54. 10. Second Headache Classification Subcommittee.The International Classification Of Headache Disorders.Cephalalgia.2004;24(Suppl 1):1-150 [11] Zinreich Sj. Paranasal Sinus Imaging. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1990;103:863–9 [12] Schatz Cj, Becker Ts. Normal Ct Anatomy Of The Paranasal Sinuses. Radiol Clin Northam 1984; 22:107–18 [13] Bhattacharyya N, Fried Mp. The Accuracy Of Computed Tomography In The Diagnosis Ofchronic Rhinosinusitis. Laryngoscope 2003;113:125–9. [14] Wolff Hg. Wolff’s Headache And Other Head Pain. 1st Edition. New York: Oxford University Press; 1948 [15] Lew D, Southwick Fs, Montgomery Ww, Weber Al, Baker As. Sphenoid Sinusitis: A Review Of 30 Cases. N Engl J Med 1983;19:1149–54. [16] Kibblewhite Dj, Cleland J, Mintz Dr. Acute Sphenoid Sinusitis: Management Strategies.J Otolaryngol 1988;17:159–63 [17] Goldman Ge, Fontanarosa Pb, Anderson Jm. Isolated Sphenoid Sinusitis. Am J Emergmed 1993;11:235–8 [18] Deans Jaj, Welch Ar. Acute Isolated Sphenoid Sinusitis: A Disease With Complications.J Laryngol Otol 1991;105:1072–4. [19] Nordeman L, Lucid E. Sphenoid Sinusitis, A Cause Of Debilitating Headache. J Emerg Med1990;8:557–9. [20] Mcauliffe Gw, Goodell H, Wolff Hg. Experimental Studies On Headache: Pain From The Nasal And Paranasal Structures. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis 1943;23:185–206. [21] Schà ¸nsted-Madsen U, Stoksted P, Christensen Ph, Koch-Henriksen N. Chronic Headache Related To Nasal Obstruction. J Laryngol Otol 1986;100:165–70. [22] Headache Classification Committee Of The International Headache Society. Classification And Diagnostic Criteria For Headache Disorders, Cranial Neuralgia, And Facial Pain. Cephalalgia 1988;8(Suppl 7):1–96 (23) Jakobsen J, Svendstrup F. Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery In Chronic Sinusitis-A Series Of 237 Patients Consecutive1y Operated Patients. Actaotolaryngol, Suppl. 2000; 543: 158-161. (24) Damn M, Quante G, Jangehuelsing M, Stennert E.Impact Offunctional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery On Symptoms And Quality Of Life In Chronic Rhinosinusistis. Laryngoscope, Feb 2002; 112: 310-315.

Social Roles in Society Essay -- Sociology Psychology Essays

Social Roles in Society Social psychology, as defined by the Microsoft Bookshelf, is the branch of human psychology that deals with the behavior of groups and the influence of social factors on the individual. Social roles are one of the many sub - categories of social psychology. I believe social roles to be the way we, as individuals, act in certain situations; such as home life, educational and economic statue, peer groups, etc. The Prison Simulation by Haney, Banks & Zimbardo is just one of the vast studies in this area. In this study we will see how people take roles in life, and in simulated life situations. Social roles are not fictitious, it is in fact a very real occurrence that many people deal with ever day, whether it be with them selves or with other individuals. The Prison Simulation, studied by Haney, Banks & Zimbardo is quite impressive as to how extensive the study actually is. Due to lack of length in this paper the synopsis dealing with this study will be brief. The experiment consisted of 24 voluntary men who were divided into two groups: Guards and Inmates. Both groups were given uniforms to encourage their roles in the prison scenario. The subjects immediately began to take on rolls as to how they thought they should act. The prison had a much greater impact on all persons than could have been anticipated. The study was supposed to last 14 days, but due to extreme emotional depression the study ended after 6 days. In the spring of 1998, my Law a...

Higher education Essay

College and high school have the same goal; which is to educate students and give them knowledge that will help them along the way in life. They both allow for growth and development, but have two completely different experiences. While high school is mandatory and helps prepare students for college academically, it can also teach life lessons that will never be forgotten. College is typically for students who would like to continue their education at a higher level and work towards achieving their career goals. College and high school are both stepping stones towards a brighter future. The majority of students in America have attended high school. It is a requirement for students ages 13-18. Students are required to complete grades 9-12, or have a certain amount of high school credits to receive a high school diploma. In California, the â€Å"CAHSEE† has to be passed. The CAHSEE is the â€Å"California High School Exit Exam† which ensures that students are able to complete grade level math, writing, and reading. On the other hand, college is a place that not every high school student has attended. College is a choice. Some people do not attend college; there are other choices such as working a full time job or even joining the army. College is for students who would like to continue their education to obtain a degree in their field of study. Butler 2 Because high school is mandatory it is also free. Students are only required to pay for items such as yearbooks, class pictures, and prom tickets. College on the other hand, is very expensive. Some colleges, such as the University of Southern California, are over 20,000 a semester. On the other hand, other colleges such as community colleges are not as expensive as private colleges or ivy league schools. They cost about 40 dollars a unit. In college, students have to pay to attend classes, pay for books, and parking passes if they have a car. They also have to pay more if they are planning on living in a dorm or apartment. Student fees such as health fees and ID cards are all required to be paid by certain deadlines if they would like to get classes. College, overall, can be very expensive. Another difference between college and high school is that in college students are able to choose their own classes. There is also more freedom  when choosing classes, students can choose whether to have a class in the morning or at night and the exact times the classes meet. Students are able to choose classes based on interests and depending on what classes are needed to getting a degree in their field of study. If the student wants to drop a class, the student is allowed to. In the first two years of college, general education classes are recommended. In high school, classes are picked for the students based on how the student did in the previous year. Most of the time school starts at a certain time, mostly in the morning, and lets out in the afternoon. There is a routine schedule everyday. If the class is passed, Butler 3 then the student can go to a higher level. The only classes students in high school are able to choose are elective classes. Those are classes like art, choir and band. Classes are also much different in size. If a student attends a university, college classes can contain many students in one class, such as a lecture hall. The class sizes are huge and can contain more than 100 students in one class. Attending a community college, some classes are smaller but not as small as high school classes. In high school, classroom sizes hold about 20 to 30 students. This allows teachers to connect with students in a more intimate way and give that one on one help that may be needed. In college, sometimes students are not given the luxury of having one on one time with a teacher, so the students has to take responsibility and try to contact the instructor or get a tutor if more help is wanted. There are numerous differences between high school and college responsibilities. Entering college can be a wake up call for many new students. Going from high school to college is a big step in life. In college, there are many deadlines that need to be met, such as applying for classes on time and paying fees when they are due. Everyone is responsible for going to class and getting their on time. If students would like to drop a class, the student is responsible for dropping the class, not the professor. College assignments are much harder then high school assignments are. Everything is much more tedious and right to the point. Being a college student, teachers do not have the time to give one on one help, so study time or studying with a group is a must. Being in college really prepares students for the  Butler 4 next step, which is embarking a career. In high school, there are not as many responsibilities. Students are responsible for going to class and passing the classes but even if they decide to â€Å"ditch† a class, the school will usually call the home and inform their parent. Other responsibilities include doing homework and completing assignments. High school is not nearly as strict as college. In college, there is much more freedom. Often times, when students graduate from high school, they attend a school outside of the state or in another city and live in dorms or apartments. This creates even more freedom. Living out of state and attending college can be a whole new experience for a high school graduate. Going to college allows them to â€Å"grow up† and teaches them how to be a responsible adult and do things on their own. There is more freedom because students can pretty much do whatever they want, when they want. In high school there is not much freedom. It is all a routine. Students are forced to go from class to class and stay in class for the whole time period unless there is an excuse for class to be missed. There is no freedom to come and go whenever. Although there are many differences, college and high school have similar aspects such as social life, classes, and earning a degree. Many people start to obtain a social life starting in high school. That is where cliques start to form and people figure out there identity. Many students begin dating and having break ups during high school, as in college. Also, there are many clubs that students can get involved in and build relationships in. In college, general education classes are required. Most Butler 5 times, these classes are review of what was learned in high school such as math, science and English. Students know what general education classes they have to take based on there test scores. High school and college are both very important and should be attended. They are both great experiences and both can be learned from. Many students attending college plan on getting a degree and starting a career in their field of study. College can teach you many responsibilities and techniques that can help in the future. Although high school and college have differences, they can both give knowledge and understanding about the world and what needs to be learned.

Policy and Structure of education in different countries

Education is indispensable to last in today ‘s universe. To go on in instruction is non merely good for endurance, but plays a critical function in success and the hunt of ends. Education progresses because engineering and society advancement. Society is altering at a really fast gait therefore doing uninterrupted instruction a necessity in today ‘s trade market. The usage of uninterrupted instruction and the hunt thereof, is important to single success. As important and of import as instruction is, simply obtaining it is non plenty. It should be continuously pursued and used appropriately. Harmonizing to Steyn & A ; Wolhuter ( 2008:2 ) educationalists realize that instruction has restrictions to consequence alterations in society, but instruction is an of import tool which society can utilize to recognize the alterations they want. It is an of import instrument that can non be used by itself, but to help world to fix themselves for the challenges of the 21st century. â€Å" In order for instruction to be an effectual instrument in helping worlds for alteration, the construction and operation of the instruction system, as the vehicle of effectual instruction, should run into certain demands. † ( Steyn & A ; Wolhuter, 2008:2. )Education policyPurposes The purposes of the instruction system point toward the awaited criterions to be reached over a longer term of office or term from approximately five to ten old ages. These purposes signifies the mileposts such as part to society, fulfilling of personal endowments, fulfilling of civic duties, transporting tradition frontward, supplying the engine for economic growing, supplying the work force with the necessary basic ‘academic ‘ accomplishments and supplying persons with chances, enlightenment and cognition to be reached in order to fulfill the vision and mission of that peculiar instruction system. The Aims These are the mileposts to be reached over a shorter period of clip from one to five old ages. These aims have the inclinations to make the purposes of the instruction system, thereby gaining the vision and mission of a peculiar system. Goals The ends of an instruction system find the boundaries wherein the system should work. The end describes the ideal personalities of the underlying beliefs, the educational services, the scholars and the pedagogues as the most of import constituting parts of the instruction system. The end is normally given in more general spiritual, societal, economical and political footings.The construction in generalThe instruction system is a good logically structured and multifaceted entireness dwelling of different parts which can be named the mechanism or subdivisions of the instruction system. These subdivisions are referred to as the instruction system policy, the instruction system disposal, the model for instruction and the support services. Different constituents of the instruction system can be located i.e. the instructions systems Acts of the Apostless, the ministry of instruction, the sections of instruction, school councils and different types of instructions establishments ( Steyn & A ; Wolhuter, 2008:4. ) These systems must be ordered harmonizing to a specific program in order to be an effectual and functional organic structure. The construction for instruction and preparation degrees and plans The degrees on which instruction is being provided in the peculiar instruction system are indicated by the instruction degrees. Conventional degrees in the system are the pre-primary, primary, secondary and third degrees. The school old ages with respect to the degrees may differ from instruction system to instruction system. It is high that the entry points and issue points, mandatory instruction and relevant entry demands with respects to these degrees are explained. The educational plans are reported harmonizing to the topics that are included in each plan on each degree. As a consequence of this, the component presents the organisation of educational plans on the different degrees, through which the educational demands of the mark group are provided for. Education establishments â€Å" This component describes the organisation of instruction establishments on different degrees. † ( Steyn & A ; Wolhuter, 2008:7 ) . The purposes of the instructions establishments every bit good as the correlativity between the different instruction establishments every bit good as the different types of instruction establishments are explained. Curricula and distinction Curriculum and distinction is a unfastened term mentioning to the demand to modify learning environments and patterns to bring forth appropriately different larning experiences for different scholars. Keirouz ( 1993 ) suggests typical processs in the instance of gifted and gifted pupils include: canceling already mastered stuff from bing course of study, adding new content, procedure, or merchandise outlooks to bing course of study, widening bing course of study to supply enrichment activities, supplying class work for able pupils at an earlier age than usual, and composing new units or classs that meet the demands of talented pupils. Learners The human ecology of the scholars is reported on the figure, age, gender, rural or urban colony and makings obtained by the scholars. Admission demands and codifications of behavior, drop-out figures and learner-classroom ratio is besides taking in history. Educators Information sing the human ecology of instructors includes the figure, age, gender and rural or urban distribution. The pre-service and in-service preparation chances of instructors are provided every bit good as other relevant information i.e. codifications of behavior and the instructor scholar ratio. 3.6 Physical installations This is the physical country where instruction is administered. The schoolrooms, talk suites, and research labs should be mentioned. The handiness of necessary installations, the allotment, use and the costs of installations will be indicated.Describe the two constituents in South Africa, Namibia and USAPolicySOUTH AFRICA4.1.1 The purposes and ends of the South- African educational system: In the White Paper on instruction and preparation ( March, 1995 ) the following were accepted as guidelines. It besides includes the National Educational Policy Act: Education and preparation are basic human rights and the province has the duty to protect these rights. All the citizens of South Africa should hold the chance to develop their potencies and contribute to the development of the community. Parents and defenders of kids have the primary duty for the instruction of their kids. The parents have the right to take the signifier of instruction for their kids, capable to the sensible precautions required by jurisprudence. The parents rights include chose of linguistic communication every bit good as the cultural spiritual footing of instruction. The province has the duty to supply aid to those parents who can non themselves decide decently on their educational hereafter of their kids. The educational policy should enable all persons to value, have success to and win in womb-to-tomb instruction and preparation of good quality. The equal entree to basic instruction and preparation which includes more than school instruction should be guaranteed to all. An increasing scope of larning possibilities offering the scholars greater flexibleness in taking should be provided. All the historical inequalities should be redressed. State resources must be deployed harmonizing to the principal of equity to supply the same quality of larning chances for all. The rights of scholars and pedagogues should be equitably protected including the policy of affirmatory action. The proviso of quality instruction and preparation is indispensable and should be provided in an incorporate manner harmonizing to the National Qualification Framework. ( NQF ) . Communities must accept ownership for their schools and legitimate, representative regulating organic structures should be instituted. The rule of democratic administration should progressively be promoted and should be characterized by audience with all relevant involvement groups. The civilization of instruction, larning and direction should be restored and the civilization of answerability should be created. The end of instruction and preparation should be to set up a democratic, free, equal, merely and peaceable society in South Africa. The diverse spiritual, cultural and linguistic communication traditions should be respected and encouraged. Education in the humanistic disciplines should be promoted. Education should advance the common democratic values and the importance of the due procedure of the jurisprudence and civic duty. Education should advance independent and critical idea. Differentiated instruction should fit the scholars with the competences required by the economic system and calling development. Mathematicss, Science and Technology instruction are critical to human apprehension and economic promotion. Environmental instruction should be promoted to help the enjoyment of nice quality of life and sustainable usage of natural resources. The rules of achievability, sustainability, efficiency and productiveness of the RDP should organize the footing of all activities of instruction. 4.1.2 The aims of the National Education Policy Act: The aims of the National Education Policy Act, 1996 ( Act 27 of 1996 ) are to supply for: The finding of national instruction policy by the curate in conformity with certain rules. Guidelines for audiences to be undertaken anterior to the finding of policy and constitution of such organic structures. The publication and execution of policy ; and To supply for the monitoring and rating of instruction.Namibia4.1.1 The purposes and ends of the Namibia educational system: Harmonizing to the Government Policy papers, Toward Education for All – A development Brief for Education, Culture and Training ( 1993 ) , a clear vision was translated. At the helm of, Toward Education for All ( 1993 ) are four major ends: entree, equity, qualities and democracy. For Access it was stated that the Government ‘s first committedness is to supply cosmopolitan Basic Education. Ultimately, every Namibian is to hold twelve old ages of general comprehensive instruction. Basic instruction is intended to guarantee that by the twelvemonth 2000, the bulk of the citizens will hold acquired basic accomplishments of reading, composing, numeracy and understanding socio-cultural procedures and natural phenomena. This is the lone manner we can process with some hope into the following millenary ( Education for All, 1993:33 ) . On the issue of quality instruction, ( Toward Education for All ) puts it that its major committedness is to do our schools good schools and to offer high quality of formal options to formal school ( p.37 ) . It goes on to state that we are all scholars. Learning is a womb-to-tomb activity. Bettering the quality of our schools is a duty we portion. We all have a critical interest in the success of our attempts ( p.40 ) . Namibia devotes a big part of its fiscal resources to instruction in every fiscal twelvemonth. The basic instruction sector, primary and secondary degrees, receives more money while the third sector comes 2nd in the precedence of instruction outgo. The freshly elected authorities of Namibia inherited an instruction system of apartheid from South Africa in 1990 which was characterized by inequalities in footings of the distribution of resources, where entree to acquisition was a precedence for a few Whites, and where quality of instruction offered was non considered. In mending the instruction characterized by some of the above characteristics every bit good as seting it at the criterion of international degree, the new authorities declared righty in Article 20 of the state ‘s fundamental law that all people should hold entree to instruction and basic instruction shall be free and compulsory. Article 20 provinces: All individuals shall hold the right to instruction. Primary instruction shall be mandatory and the province shall supply sensible installations to render effectual this right for every occupant within Namibia, by set uping and keeping State schools at which primary instruction will be provided free of charge. Children shall non be allowed to go forth school until they have completed their primary instruction or have attained the age of 16 old ages, whichever is the Oklahoman, save in so far as this may be authorized by act of Parliament on evidences of wellness or other considerations refering to public involvement. 4.1.2 The aims of the National Education Policy Act: The aims of the National Education Policy Act of 2001 as promulgated in December 2001, primary aims are: To supply for the proviso of accessible, just, qualitative and democratic national instruction service. To supply for the constitution of the National Advisory Council on Education, the National Examination, Assessment and Certification Board, Regional Education Forums, School Boards, the Education Development Fund. The constitution of schools and inns. The constitution of the Teaching Service and the Teaching Service Committee. Provision for incidental affairs.USA4.1.1 The purposes and ends of the USA educational system: The USA is proud to supply equal educational chances for all its scholars and boasts about go forthing no kids behind. There is no federal system of instruction, and each province and local school territory within the US has the constitutional right to set up its ain signifier of instruction. There are nevertheless, togss of communality running throughout most of the instruction systems in the state, including course of study, answerability criterions, and teacher enfranchisement ordinances, in add-on to the sharing of many challenges linked to poverty, linguistic communication diverseness, gender, and race or ethnicity factors. ( Steyn & A ; Wolhuter, 2008:300 ) The US system of instruction provides free public instruction, from kindergarten through to rate 12, for all pupils. The US does non hold a centralised system of instruction, with most determinations left to single provinces and local authorities, provided their policies do non belie the US Constitution. Each province retained control over instruction within its boundary lines, provided its educational policies did non violate commissariats in the Constitution, which by and large focused on issues of civil rights. In some cases the Federal Government has become straight involved in province and local instruction sing the separation of faith from authorities maps and the protection of civil rights related to race, gender, disablement and due procedure ( Steyn & A ; Wolhuter, 2008:310 ) . However, the national purposes of instruction in the US refer. Differences in the look of values besides consequence what states decide are the national purposes of instruction and on how those are articulated. The most normally articulated purposes across the 16 states include: Developing the capacities of the person Promoting equal chance Fixing immature people for work Establishing a foundation for farther and higher instruction Supplying cognition, accomplishments and understanding Promoting citizenship ( sometimes in the signifier of advancing democracy or community ) , and Sing cultural heritage ( or literacy ) . Harmonizing to ( Steyn & A ; Wolhuter, 2008:326 ) the NCLB programme is designated to accomplish exalted ends outlined in the programme ‘s four ‘common-sense pillars ‘ , which include: – Stronger answerability for consequences through state-wide answerability systems based on one-year proving for all pupils ; – more freedom for provinces and communities through more flexible usage of their federal instruction financess ; – required usage of proved instruction methods supported by scientifically-based research ; and – more picks for parents by leting pupils assigned to neglecting schools to go to better public schools, with transit disbursals paid by the failing school ( US Department of Education, 2004b ) . 4.1.2 The aims of National Act: The aims of the Public Law 107 – 110, 107th Congress, No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and Table of Contents of Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 lineation: To Bettering the academic accomplishment of the disadvantaged. Teacher and chief preparation and recruiting fund. Implementing board policies that define public simple and secondary school operations, including such authorizations as graduation demands and class content ; Monitoring and roll uping informations to find conformity with province mandated maps and answerability plans ; Recommending for public instruction while supplying information to province legislative assemblies and citizens sing instruction ; Supplying proficient aid to the schools, such as aid construing English for Speakers of Other linguistic communications demands ; and Distributing province financess to local school territories.StructureSOUTH AFRICA 4.2.1 Structure for instruction and preparation degrees and plans: The National Qualifications Framework is a new attack to the organisation of instruction and preparation in South Africa after 1994. The NQF is an instrument to implement an outcomes-based incorporate attack to instruction and preparation. This become a world and provides chances to larn, irrespective of age, fortunes and the degree of instruction and developing a scholar may hold. This is called lifelong acquisition. The General Education and Training ( GET ) forms the first set and degree 1 of the NQF. This set consists of Grades 1-9 of the formal schooling and forms the nine old ages of compulsory schooling. The Foundation Phase, Grades 1-3 includes the early childhood development stage and forms the first portion of the GET set of the NQF. The overall end of the course of study is to supply kids with the chances to develop to their full potency as active responsible and fulfilled citizens who can play a constructive function in a democratic, non-racist and just society. In the intermediate stage, grades 4-6, while still extremely contextualized and mostly incorporate. Rate 7-9, the Senior Phase is the last stage in the GET set. In this stage the scholar should be progressively able to ground independently of concrete stuffs and experience. Combined schools offering all stages as mentioned above under one roof. 4.2.2 The course of study and distinction: A new policy for the constitution of new course of study for schools was announced by the curate of instruction on 24 March 1997. The new course of study is known as course of study 2005. The new attack known as OBE is linked to the NQF. The new course of study was introduced in class 1 in 1998 and in grade 2 in 1999. The debut of the course of study 2005 in the senior classs was in July 1998 postponed by the curate of instruction due a deficit of resources and financess. In the new course of study, specific larning countries are identified for the different degrees of the NQF. In add-on to the larning countries, there are besides three types of results, viz. critical results, larning results and specific results. The Foundation Phase makes proviso for 3 learning plans: 1. Communication, literacy and linguistic communication larning 2. Numeracy and Mathematicss 3. Life Orientation. The Intermediate Phase makes proviso for 5 acquisition plans and the Senior Phase provides the following 8 LA ‘s: 1.Communication, literacy and linguistic communication acquisition. 2.Human and Social Sciences. 3.Numeracy and Mathematicss 4.Technology. 5.Economic and Management Science. 6.Life Orientation 7.Arts and Culture 8.Natural Sciences Namibia 4.2.1 Structure for instruction and preparation degrees and plans: The formal system in Namibian schools consists of 12 old ages of schooling broken down as follows: Four old ages of lower primary utilizing mother lingua as the medium of direction ; Three old ages of upper primary ( English as medium of direction starts in Grade 4 and goes up to rate 12 ) ; 3 old ages of junior secondary ; and, 2 old ages of senior secondary. However, the formal school system may besides be divided into the undermentioned phases some of which have combined stages: Pre-primary stage, caters for the under 6 old ages age group. Primary Phase, Lower primary, grades 1 to 4 and upper primary classs 5 to 7. Secondary Phase, Junior secondary, grades 8 – 10 and senior secondary, grades 11 – 12. Combined Schools offering both primary, junior secondary or senior secondary classs under one roof. 4.2.2 The course of study and distinction: A new prescribed course of study was introduced in 1996. I 1998, new course of study panels and topic, some of which have already been completed ( Ministry of Education, Namibia, 2006 ) . The chief countries in primary schools are linguistic communication accomplishments such as speech production, reading and composing and composing in English and in Namibian linguistic communications ; societal accomplishments such as societal surveies, spiritual and moral instruction ; humanistic disciplines and trade like pulling, music and dance ; physical instruction such as hygiene, horticulture and handicraft, and mathematics and environmental scientific discipline ( Craelius et al. , 1995:690 ) . In the junior secondary schools the chief countries covered are linguistic communication, spiritual and moral instruction, scientific discipline and mathematics, art and athleticss and prevocational accomplishments from which two of the following are chosen: domestic scientific discipline, woodwork, metalwork, commercialism, needlecraft or dressmaking and agricultural production. The senior secondary schools offer linguistic communication surveies, humanistic disciplines and societal scientific disciplines, mathematics, physical instruction and originative, proficient and vocational surveies as nucleus topics. Options are broad, but are dependent on the field of survey chosen and the handiness of physical, instructional and human resources in the school ( Steyn & A ; Wolhuter, 2008:151-152 ) . USA 4.2.1 Structure for Education and preparation degrees and plans: The construction for learning in the US includes 12 old ages for regular schooling, followed by a four phase system of higher instruction. This system is normally preceded by one or two old ages of pre-school instruction ( US Department of Education, 2005 ) . Pre-School: Most provinces require some sort of pre-school and / or kindergarten programme before leting pupils to inscribe in the first twelvemonth of an simple or primary school. Pre-school plans normally occur from one or two old ages before entry. They have to be between the ages of three to five. Twelve Old ages of Formal Schooling: Formal primary instruction, frequently refer to as simple instruction, lasts for the first five to six old ages. The staying old ages of this 12 twelvemonth rhythm consist of 3 to 4 old ages of in-between school or junior high school, followed by three to four old ages of senior high school. Depending on local and or province guidelines, a pupil would go to: 8 old ages of simple and 4 old ages of high school ; 4 old ages of simple, 4 old ages of center and 4 old ages of high school ; 6 old ages of simple, 3 old ages of junior high, and 3 old ages of senior high school ; or 6 old ages of simple and 6 old ages of combined junior or senior high school. Higher Education: After successfully finishing 12 old ages of formal schooling and having a high school sheepskin pupils may take to go to: a. A two twelvemonth vocational institute B. Two twelvemonth junior community college, or c. A four twelvemonth undergraduate college or university plan. 4.2.2 The course of study and distinction: The simple, in-between and or junior high schools enroll pupils from ages 6 to 12, and include direction in the cardinal accomplishments or reading, composing and arithmetic. Foreign linguistic communications are normally introduced at the in-between school degree. Depending on local and province ordinances, high schools normally require pupils to inscribe in English, Mathematics, General Science, Social Studies and Physical Education classs. The course of study may besides include two old ages of a foreign linguistic communication, applied concern classs, engineering and the humanistic disciplines. After finishing 12 old ages of formal instruction, pupils may use for either a 4 twelvemonth grade allowing establishment or a two twelvemonth junior or community college.Similarities of the instruction systems of South Africa, Namibia and USA:Equal chances for all without bias. Pre-school plan. Junior and Senior stages. Third instruction Particular and inclusive instruction Mother lingua instruction Combined schools 12 old ages of formal instruction Pre-school under 6 old ages of age Lifelong acquisition Fundamentalss accomplishments, reading and authorship and numeracy.Differences:SOUTH AFRICASpecific larning countries in GET Phase. Structure: GET Band: Classs 1 to 3 Foundation Phase Classs 4 to 6 Intermediate Phase Classs 7 to 9 Senior Phase FET – Grades 10 – 12.NamibiaFocus on Namibian linguistic communications accomplishments, societal accomplishments, spiritual and moral surveies. Structure: Lower Primary: classs 1 to 4, Upper Primary: classs 5 to 7 Secondary: classs 8 to 10. Senior Secondary: classs 11 – 12USA1.Focus on English, Mathematics, General Science, Social surveies and Physical instruction. Two old ages of foreign linguistic communications, applied concern classs, engineering and humanistic disciplines. 2.Structure: Options: 8 old ages simple school, 4 old ages high school 4 old ages simple, 4 old ages in-between high school and 4 old ages senior high school. old ages simple, 3 old ages junior high, 3 old ages senior high. 6 old ages simple, 6 old ages combined junior and senior high school.6.Reasons for possible similarities and differences in the 3 instruction systems:Throughout the universe, basicss of instruction are addressed. These include basic accomplishments such as reading, composing and numeracy. Equal chances given to our immature scholars address the issues of human rights within each of the three states mentioned. Education is a cosmopolitan instrument and hence the acquisition is and remains womb-to-tomb larning. Mother tongue instruction is an imperative tool for scholars that come from the same human ecology, part or province. It is hence really of import to learn the same linguistic communication where kids are being educated. Some of the differences could turn to the issue of population. In the first universe states, it is a given that the population are get downing to settle in whilst in the 3rd universe states like South Africa and Namibia, the population is of all time increasing. A high per centum of the population is below the active economic age. South Africa ‘s and Namibia ‘s urbanisation are in the beginning stage. All three states experience a high inflow of other states citizens. The educational demands of every state are addressed. Cipher is excluded. The constitutional right of every kid is adhered to. Peoples are inspired by womb-to-tomb scholars. Throughout the universe the demands of people differ. The ground for this is the population of each state and the demographics of that state. Specific demands of states differ that is why instruction will differ. The USA is a first universe state with extremely specialised people, Namibia and South Africa though do non hold the substructure to compare with the USA. 7. Decision The degree of trouble of the different states to cover with the expected challenges differs to a big extend. A large difference exists with respect to the degree that instruction systems of the different states are prepared to efficaciously cover with challenges of the twenty-first Century. It is of import that the authoritiess, involvement groups and persons in the societies of immerging states takes duty to place the cloth of the community sing the demographical, geographical, socio-economical, scientific and technological, political and philosophical inclinations. It must take topographic point in such a mode that the peculiar state can efficaciously cover with the expected challenges of the twenty-first Century. 8. Bliography 8.1 Quality Primary Education, Program Overview and Strategic Objectives. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.usaid.gov/na/so2.htm. Date of entree: 10 February 2010. 8.2 David Kerr, 1999. Citizenship Education: an International Comparison. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.inca.org.uk/pdf/citizenship_no_intro.pdf. Date of entree: 09 February 2010. 8.3 Professional & A ; Associates Resumes.com hypertext transfer protocol: //www.professional-resumes.com/why-continuous-education-is-an-important-tool.html. Date of entree 09 February 2010. 8.4 Steyn, H.J. , Wolhuter C.C. 2000. Education Systems, Challenges of the twenty-first Century. Noordbrug. Keurkopie Uitgewers. 8.5 Steyn, H.J. , Steyn S.C. , & A ; De Waal E.A.S. , 2001. The South African Education System, Core features. Noordbrug. Keurkopie Uitgewers. 8.6 Basic Education Namibia. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nied.edu.na/Bep/en-home.htm. Date of entree: 12 February 2010. 8.7 PUBLIC LAW 107-110-JAN. 8, 2002 115 STAT. 1425 hypertext transfer protocol: //opi.mt.gov/PDF/FEDPrgms/USDOE/pl107110.pdf. Date of entree: 12 February 2010. 8.8 hypertext transfer protocol: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States. Date of entree: 09 February 2010.